Cradle‑to‑Grave (C2G)

Cradle-to-Grave (C2G) is the most comprehensive Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) approach defined under ISO 14044. It evaluates the environmental impacts of a product from the extraction of raw materials (cradle) to its final disposal (grave), including all intermediate stages. This holistic perspective reveals critical hotspots across the life cycle and guides strategies for ecodesign, emission reduction and circularity.

Full C2G scope

• Extraction and processing of natural resources
• Component manufacturing and assembly
• Transport and distribution to the final user
• Use phase: energy, water, consumables and maintenance
• End-of-life: recycling, reuse, energy-recovery incineration or landfill

Step-by-step methodology

1. Goal and scope definition: define system boundaries, functional unit and modelling rules.
2. Life Cycle Inventory (LCI): gather primary and secondary data for all material and energy flows in each stage.
3. Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA): assign inventory flows to categories such as carbon footprint, water footprint, eutrophication and toxicity.
4. Interpretation: identify hotspots and propose improvements with sensitivity and uncertainty analysis.

Comparison with other system boundaries

• Cradle-to-Gate: cradle to factory gate; excludes use and end-of-life.
• Gate-to-Gate: only internal plant processes.
• Cradle-to-Cradle: expands beyond C2G by ensuring closed-loop circulation without a waste phase.

Key indicators and metrics

• Global Warming Potential (GWP100): kg CO₂e per functional unit
• Cumulative Energy Demand (CED): MJ of primary energy
• Water Scarcity Footprint (AWARE): m³ eq. of water
• Material Circularity Indicator (MCI): assessment of loop closure
• Total Recycled Content: % of secondary materials incorporated

Strategic benefits

• Full transparency for regulators (CSRD, ESPR)
• Targeted ecodesign: elimination of critical or toxic materials
• Cost reduction: average 12% savings in virgin materials after redesign (Manglai 2024 study, 65 firms)
• Commercial advantage: basis for verified EPDs and additional scoring in public tenders

Limitations and challenges

• Complex data collection for dispersed or variable use-phase profiles
• End-of-life assumptions: recycling rates vary by region and year
• Supplier confidentiality may limit access to detailed inventories
• Potential for burden shifting if available recycling infrastructure is not assessed

Case study: European smartphone (2023)

• Total GWP100: 72 kg CO₂e per unit
  • Component production: 46 kg (64%)
  • Use phase (3-year charging): 20 kg (28%)
  • End-of-life (partial recycling): 6 kg (8%)

Intervention: 75% recycled aluminium housing and interchangeable battery module
Result: 18% reduction in total GWP100 and MCI improvement from 0.34 to 0.57

Synergies with policies and standards

• ESPR Regulation: requires C2G data for the digital product passport
• EU Green Taxonomy: funds investments with verified impact reductions
• LEED v4 and BREEAM: award credits for C2G LCA and recycled content
• ISO 14068: compatibility with Net-Zero pathways based on LCA

From C2G to circular models

• Identify hotspot stages to close material loops and transition toward Cradle-to-Cradle
• Develop product-as-a-service models (leasing, remanufacturing)
• Implement take-back schemes and traceability systems to guarantee post-consumer returns

The Cradle-to-Grave approach provides the most complete X-ray of a product’s life cycle, exposing impacts and opportunities for improvement at every stage. Although it demands extensive data, it forms the foundation for Environmental Product Declarations, compliance with European ecodesign regulations and the transition toward circular, carbon-neutral economies.